Research

A Directive Speech Act (DSA) is cross-linguistically associated with imperative constructions and is distinguished from the other two basic types of speech acts: assertive (linked to declarative constructions) and interrogative (linked to interrogative constructions) (Searle 1969; Austin 1975). In Greek, direct DSAs are encoded in imperative and root subjunctive clauses, both of which exhibit a wide range of interpretations, including acquiescence, invitation, weak advice, strong advice, request, and command.

This many-to-one relationship between form and interpretation raises two key questions:
a) How do speakers disambiguate among different interpretations?
b) How do children acquire and process these different interpretations before reaching adult-stage grammar?

Theoretical Background

DSAs, typically encoded by imperative clauses, allow for a broad range of interpretations, from weak readings (e.g., permission, invitation) to strong readings (e.g., command, request) (Wilson & Sperber 1988; Han 2000; Schwager 2006; Kaufmann 2012; Portner 2007; Condoravdi & Lauer 2012; von Fintel & Iatridou 2017).

For example:
(1) Open the window.
↝ a. You can open the window (possibility reading).
↝ b. You should/must open the window (necessity reading).

Theoretical approaches differ on how these meanings emerge: Modal-operator analyses suggest that a modal element (necessity/possibility) is responsible for their interpretation (Schwager 2006; Kaufmann 2011; Grosz 2012; Oikonomou 2016a). Pragmatic approaches argue that directive force is derived through a pragmatic update modelled in dynamic semantics  (Hausser 1980; Portner 2004, 2007; Mastop 2005; Starr 2011; Roberts 2018).

Regarding the necessity-possibility distinction, theories vary: Some propose that necessity is the default, with weaker meanings derived secondarily (Han 2000; Schwager 2006; Kaufmann 2012; Portner 2007). Others argue that imperatives are inherently ambiguous between necessity and possibility (Grosz 2012; Carter 2022). Oikonomou (2016a,b) proposes that imperatives originally express possibility but can be strengthened into necessity, aligning with Kaufmann’s (2011) weakening mechanism.

Acquisition of DSAs

Children acquire and frequently use imperatives from an early stage (Stephany 1981, 2021; Varlokosta et al. 1998; Grinstead 1998; Doukas 2011), but it remains unclear whether they initially grasp their full range of meanings (e.g., permission, advice, command). Research on directive root subjunctives is limited, though studies indicate they appear early in child speech with a directive/wish function (Varlokosta et al. 1998, 2002; Doukas 2011; Stephany 2021), without further examination of their modal properties.

Objectives & Research stages

• Identifying the distribution and meaning of imperative and subjunctive forms in DSAs.

To investigate this, we designed a sentence evaluation task to assess the appropriateness of subjunctive versus imperative constructions based on two key parameters: (i) Speech act type (request vs. permission) and, (ii) Temporal interpretation (immediate vs. later)

Our results indicate that while the imperative is generally preferred, temporal interpretation plays a crucial role: Immediate contexts favor the imperative whereas later contexts favor the subjunctive. (See Research Outcome for a detailed presentation of the study.)

• Examining how intonation affects interpretation.

In this direction, we conducted a production study and prepared a perception study, which will be completed after analyzing the production study data. In the production study, speakers read aloud an imperative utterance within either a permission or a request context. In the perception task, participants will determine whether an imperative conveys permission or a request based on how it sounds.

• Investigating how children acquire DSAs, their sensitivity to prosodic cues, and their developmental path from ages 3-6.

To address these questions we develop our research in two directions: 

1. Natural Speech Data Collection and Analysis
   • Gather and analyze spontaneous speech data from children (ages 3–6).
   • Identify how children use imperative and subjunctive DSAs and interpret their meanings [for more information on the corpus see DireSpont].
2. Experimental Studies on DSA Acquisition
   • Conduct a production elicitation task using visual stimuli to elicit permission and request DSAs.
   • Implement a Forced Choice Perception task, testing how imperatives are interpreted based on prosody.

Further details on the experimental design and results will be uploaded as the study progresses.